{"id":13558,"date":"2011-05-05T22:29:36","date_gmt":"2011-05-05T19:29:36","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/?p=13558"},"modified":"2011-05-06T01:39:07","modified_gmt":"2011-05-05T22:39:07","slug":"%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%b9%d8%a7%d9%85%d8%a9-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a5%d8%b3%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%85-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a5%d8%b1%d8%aa%d8%b1%d9%8a","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/%d9%86%d8%b8%d8%b1%d8%a9-%d8%aa%d8%a7%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%ae%d9%8a%d8%a9-%d8%b9%d8%a7%d9%85%d8%a9-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a5%d8%b3%d9%84%d8%a7%d9%85-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%a5%d8%b1%d8%aa%d8%b1%d9%8a\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0646\u0638\u0631\u0629 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645  \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627"},"content":{"rendered":"<h6 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href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftn63\">[63]<\/a>.<\/h6>\n<h6 dir=\"rtl\">\u0648\u0645\u0646 \u0646\u0627\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0625\u0642\u0646\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0647\u0627\u0634\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0642\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0648\u0635\u0644 \u0625\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0647\u0627\u0631\u0628\u0627\u064b \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0628\u0636\u0639\u0629 \u0623\u0634\u0647\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1885\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0643\u0633\u0644\u0627 \u060c \u0628\u063a\u0631\u0636 \u0645\u0633\u0627\u0639\u062f\u062a\u0647\u0645. \u00a0\u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0648\u0646 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\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0643\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0631 \u062d\u062c\u0627\u064a \u0625\u0631\u0644\u064a\u0634\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0634\u064a\u0627 \u0631\u064a\u062f\u0643\u0631 \u0647\u0628\u0646\u0631\u060c \u062c\u0648\u0632\u064a\u0641 \u062a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0627 \u0644\u0645\u0627 \u0642\u062f\u0645\u0627\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0638\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0645\u0642\u062a\u0631\u062d\u0627\u062a \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u062e\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0646\u0634\u0631\u062a \u0646\u0633\u062e\u062a\u0647\u0627\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062c\u0644\u064a\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0643\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0629 Die Welt Des Islams \u00a0\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 2005\u0645<\/p>\n<p>1 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0645\u0648\u0630\u062c\u064a \u0628\u0634\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u0648 J. S. Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, London: Frank \u00a0\u00a0Cass, 1965 (1st ed. 1952) \u0648\u064a\u062a\u0636\u0645\u0646 \u0647\u06301\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0631\u063a\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u062a\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0647 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u0629. \u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u062e\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0647\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0628\u0630\u0644\u062a \u0644\u062c\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u0646\u0638\u064a\u0645 \u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0628\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062f\u0631\u0648\u062c\u0648\u0631\u064a , \u201cSoggiorno di studi in Eritrea ed Etiopia. Brevi annotazioni bibliografiche,\u201d <em>Rassegna di Studi Etiopici<\/em>, XXXIX (1995), Roma-Napoli, 1997, pp. 81-129 and Jonathan Miran &amp; R. S. O\u2019Fahey, \u201cThe Islamic and Related Writings of Eritrea,\u201d edited by R.S. O\u2019Fahey and J.O. Hunwick, <em>Arabic<\/em><\/p>\n<p><em>Literature of Africa, Volume 13, III, Fascicle A. The Writings of the Muslim Peoples of Northeastern Africa<\/em>, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2003, pp. 1-17. \u0648\u0644\u0627\u0628\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0647\u0646\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0646\u0634\u0631\u0648\u0627 \u0639\u062f\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0645\u0646\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0631\u0643\u0632 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u062e\u0627\u0635 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 . \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627\u064b: \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u060c \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u00a0 \u0623\u0631\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0634\u0639\u0628\u0627\u064b \u060c \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0647\u0631\u0629\u060c 1994\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u062c\u0648\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0642\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u060c \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0647\u0631\u0629 \u060c \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a \u0644\u062a\u0648\u0632\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0628\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a\u060c 1997\u0645. \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0646\u0627\u0648\u062f\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u060c \u062c\u062f\u0629\u060c 1991\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0644\u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0644\u0641 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627: \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062c\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0645\u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0648\u064a\u062a\u060c\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u064a\u0626\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u064a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c 2001\u0645. \u0648\u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0644\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a\u060c \u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639<\/p>\n<p>Lidwien Kapteijns, \u201cEthiopia and the Horn of Africa,\u201d edited by N. Levtzion and R. Pouwels, <em>The History of Islam in Africa<\/em>, Athens, OH: Ohio Univerwdi 45 sity Press, 2000, pp. 227-250 (2000). \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u00a0R. S. O\u2019Fahey, \u201c\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a,\u201d <em>Sudanic Africa<\/em>, 12, 2001, pp. 131-142.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref2\">[2]<\/a> \u0627\u0628\u062a\u062f\u0627\u0621\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u060c \u0641\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062a\u0641\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0628\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0634\u0643\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u2013 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0636\u0645 \u062c\u0632\u0621 \u0645\u0646 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0645 \u062a\u062c\u0631\u0627\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0623\u0631\u0636 \u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0646\u062c\u0627\u0634. \u0648\u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0646\u0647\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0646\u062c\u0627\u0634 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0638\u0647\u0631\u062a \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0633\u0645\u0649 \u0628\u0645\u0631\u0628 \u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0634\u060c \u0623\u064a \u064a\u062d\u062f\u0647\u0627 \u0646\u0647\u0631 \u0645\u0631\u0628\u060c \u0648\u0645\u0631\u0628 \u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0634 \u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0635\u0637\u0644\u062d \u064a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u062f\u062b\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0645\u0644\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u064a\u062a\u0633\u0642 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0637\u0644\u062d \u0639\u0645\u0644\u064a\u0627\u064b\u060c \u0627\u0646 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0643\u0646 \u0628\u062f\u0642\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0623\u062f\u0628\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0637\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a 1890\u0645.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref3\">[3]<\/a>\u0627\u0644\u062c\u0628\u0631\u062a\u0629 \u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0646 \u064a\u0642\u0637\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062a\u0641\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u064a\u0634\u062a\u0647\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0628\u0645\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0633\u0629 \u0623\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u0629\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0..<\/p>\n<p>\u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631 Abdulkadir Salih, \u201cJabarti,\u201d <em>Encyclop\u00e6dia \u00c6thiopica<\/em>, edited by S. Uhlig, Vol. 2, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz (forthcoming).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref4\">[4]<\/a> \u0642\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0635\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 1931\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628: \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0644\u0643\u064a 65%\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a 26%\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0641\u0639\u064a 9 % \u060c . \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646\u00a0 \u00a0\u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0631\u0627 \u0634\u0643\u0643 \u0641\u064a \u0635\u062d\u0629 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u00a0\u0648\u0623\u0635\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a \u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u063a\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u064a\u0646\u0628\u063a\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0647\u0646\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u064a\u0646\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062d\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0634\u0631\u0642 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u062a\u0644\u0642\u064a\u0627 \u062a\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0647\u0645\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0631 \u064a\u062a\u0628\u0639\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a. . Arnaldo Bertola, <em>Il<\/em><em> regime dei culti nell\u2019Africa italiana <\/em>,Bologna:\u00a0 L. Cappelli, 1939, p. 163;\u00a0\u00a0 Alberto Pollera, <em>Le popolazioni indigene dell\u2019Eritrea<\/em>, Bologna: L. Cappelli, 1935, pp. 285-286; Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 232-233; Gori, \u201cSoggiorno di studi in Eritrea ed Etiopia,\u201d pp. 94-97.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref5\">[5]<\/a> \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u0629 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0637\u0644\u0642 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0623\u0631\u0636 \u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627. \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Dante Odorizzi, <em>Note storiche sulla religione mussulmana e sulle divisioni dell\u2019Islam con appunti<\/em> <em>speciali relativi all\u2019Islam in Eritrea <\/em>(Asmara, 1916), pp. 15-18; A. Gu\u00e9rinot, \u201cL\u2019islam et l\u2019Abyssinie,\u201d <em>RMM<\/em>, 34, 1917-1918, pp. 6-8; Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 44-6; Joseph Cuoq, <em>L\u2019Islam en Ethiopie<\/em>, Paris: Nouvelles Editions Latines, 1981, pp. 28-35, and Haggai Erlich, <em>Ethiopia and the Middle East<\/em>, Boulder: Lynne Rienner,<\/p>\n<p>1994, \u00a0pp. 5 ff. \u00a0\u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u062e\u0631 \u0645\u0627 \u0643\u062a\u0628 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0633\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0629 \u0623\u062d\u062f\u0627\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639\u0629 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0646\u0627\u0648\u062f\u060c \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u061b \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062c\u0631\u0627\u062a \u060c \u0635 41- 51. \u0648\u064a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0646\u0627\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0627\u0628\u0629 \u0647\u0627\u062c\u0631\u0648\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0648\u062c\u0627\u062a \u0645\u062a\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref6\">[6]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0633\u064a\u0637\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0648\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u062a\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0647\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0639\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0643 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0631\u062e\u0628\u064a\u0644 \u062c\u0632\u0631 \u062f\u0647\u0644\u0643 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a 83 \u064884 \u0647\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0629( 702\u0645)\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b 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\u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u064a \u0631\u0628\u064a\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0646\u0641\u0627\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0639\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0632\u064a\u0632 \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u062f\u0647\u0644\u0643.( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645 )\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref7\">[7]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u064a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0639\u0648\u062f\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u062a\u0648\u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 346 \u0647\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u060c \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0647 \u0645\u0631\u0648\u062c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0647\u0628 \u0648\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0648\u0647\u0631\u00a0 \u062c2 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0627\u062a 18 \u064819 \u060c \u201d \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0635\u0627\u0647\u0631\u062a \u0648\u062a\u0632\u0648\u0627\u062c\u062a \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062c\u0627 \u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0631\u0628\u064a\u0639\u0629 \u0628\u0646 \u0646\u0632\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0639\u062f\u0646\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0648\u062c\u0627\u0648\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062d\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0636\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0646\u0632\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0633\u0646\u0643\u0648\u0627 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0627\u0631. \u0648\u064a\u0624\u0643\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0639\u0648\u062f\u064a \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0628 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629. ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645)<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref8\">[8]<\/a> John Spencer Trimingham, <em>Islam in the Sudan<\/em>, London, 1965. (1st ed. 1949), p. 10; A. Gu\u00e9rinot, \u201cL\u2019islam et l\u2019Abyssinie,\u201d p. 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref9\">[9]<\/a> \u0625\u0644\u064a \u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0628\u062f\u0647\u0644\u0643 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u00a0<\/p>\n<p>Ren\u00e9 Basset, \u201cLes inscriptions de l\u2019\u00eele de Da\u00a5lak,\u201d <em>Journal Asiatique<\/em>, s\u00e9rie 9, vol. 1, 1893, pp. 77-111 and Madeleine Schneider, <em>St\u00e8les fun\u00e9raires musulmanes des \u00eeles Dahlak<\/em> <em>(mer Rouge)<\/em>, Cairo: IFAO, 1983. \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 Giovanni Oman in Italian and a recent synthesis grounded in an archaeological historical approach in Timothy Insoll, <em>The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa<\/em>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 49-58. \u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0623\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0643\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b Joseph Cuoq, <em>L\u2019Islam en Ethiopie.<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref10\">[10]<\/a> \u064a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0639\u0648\u062f\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0633\u0646\u0629 332\u0647\u0640\u060c \u0635 19 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0645\u0631 \u0643\u0632\u064a\u0644\u0639 \u0648\u062f\u0647\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0645\u062f\u0646 \u064a\u0633\u0643\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0646 \u0648\u062a\u062e\u0636\u0639 \u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u0629 . ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645)\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref11\">[11]<\/a> \u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0630\u0631\u064a\u062a\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0648\u0627\u062c \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0637\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0641\u0631\u064a \u0642\u062f \u0623\u0648\u062c\u062f\u062a \u0639\u0634\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u0642\u064a \u062d\u0631\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0648\u0641\u0629 \u0628\u062a\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u060c\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0646\u062d\u062f\u0631 \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0647\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0626\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u0645\u0631 (1909 \u2013 1969\u0645).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref12\">[12]<\/a> \u062a\u0639\u0646\u064a \u0643\u0644\u0645\u0629 \u201d \u0639\u062f \u201d \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a (\u0648\u0647\u064a \u0627\u062d\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0644\u063a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0629) \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u060c\u0622\u0644 \u0641\u0644\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0628\u0644\u062f\u0629 \u0643\u0630\u0627 \u2026\u2026 ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref13\">[13]<\/a> \u062a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0639\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0627\u0626\u0631\u00a0 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0642\u0628\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u0648\u062e<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref14\">[14]<\/a> Federico Cresti, \u201cAlcune note storiche su Massaua, con particolare riferimento ad un complesso religioso islamico: la moschea dello Shaykh \u00ddamm\u00b8li,\u201d <em>Africa<\/em> (Roma), 45 (3) 1990, pp. 410-431 and \u201cLa mosqu\u00e9e du \u00b3ay\u00a5 \u00ddamm\u00b8l\u00ba a Massaoua,\u201d <em>Etudes Ethiopiennes, Actes de la Xe Conf\u00e9rence Internationale des Etudes Ethiopiennes, Paris, 24-28 ao\u00fbt 1988<\/em>, edited by Claude Lepage, Volume 1, Paris: Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise<em> <\/em>pour les \u00e9tudes \u00e9thiopiennes, 1994, pp. 303-315. \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0635\u0644 \u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0646\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u201d \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629\u201d \u0644\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631. \u0648\u0647\u064a \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646\u0634\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0643\u0645\u0644\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0622\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629\u060c 1953\u060c \u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629 54<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref15\">[15]<\/a> \u064a\u0646\u0628\u063a\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0647\u0646\u0627 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062d\u062a\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1557\u0645 \u062c\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u062d\u062a\u0644\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1556\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0642\u062f \u0633\u0628\u0642\u0647 \u0627\u062d\u062a\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0628\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0644\u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1517\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u0645\u062a\u062f \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u062e\u0644\u064a\u062c \u0639\u062f\u0646 \u0648\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0646\u060c \u0645\u0645\u0627 \u0634\u0643\u0644 \u062d\u062c\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0633\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629\u00a0 ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645 )\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref16\">[16]<\/a> \u00a0\u0644\u0627 \u064a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0639\u0636\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0633\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0628\u0627\u0633\u064a \u064a\u062a\u0630\u0643\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u062f\u0648\u0627\u0639\u064a \u0647\u062c\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u062c\u062f\u0627\u062f\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c\u0627\u0632 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u060c \u062d\u064a\u062b \u062a\u0631\u0628\u0637\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0627\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0631\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0628\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0639\u062f\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0636\u0627\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u062a\u0645\u0648\u0646 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0626\u0644\u0629 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0645\u0646 \u0639\u0634\u0631\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062f\u064a\u064a\u0646. \u0648\u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u061b \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0644\u0627\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639 \u060c \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u0629 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646\u0634\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0643\u0645\u0644 \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0622\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0639\u0627\u0645 1957\u0645\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629 77.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref17\">[17]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u062a\u0639\u062a\u0645\u062f \u0623\u062c\u0632\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0647\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0633\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0645\u0633 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0623\u062c\u0631\u064a\u062a\u0647 \u0644\u0646\u064a\u0644 \u062f\u0631\u062c\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0643\u062a\u0648\u0631\u0627\u0629 Jonathan Miran, \u2018Facing the Land, Facing the Sea: Commercial Transformation and Urban Dynamics in the Red Sea Port of Massawa, 1840s-1900s,\u2019 Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, 2004.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref18\">[18]<\/a> See John Obert Voll, <em>Islam. Continuity and Change in the Modern World, <\/em>Boulder:<\/p>\n<p>Westview Press, 1982, pp. 34-9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref19\">[19]<\/a> \u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 R. S. O\u2019Fahey, <em>Enigmatic Saint: Ahmad Ibn Idris and the Idrisi Tradition<\/em>,<\/p>\n<p>Evanston: Northwstern University Press, 1990.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref20\">[20]<\/a> Nicole Grandin, \u201cLe nord-est et l\u2019est de l\u2019Afrique,\u201d <em>Les Voies d\u2019Allah: les orders mystiques dans le monde musulman des origines \u00e0 aujourd\u2019hui<\/em>, edited by Alexandre<em> <\/em>Popovic and Gilles Veinstein, Paris: Fayard, 1996, pp. 428-441; Ali Salih Karrar,<em> The Sufi Brotherhoods in the Sudan<\/em>, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1992.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref21\">[21]<\/a> \u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u062a\u0641\u0635\u064a\u0644\u0627\u064b \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062b\u0646\u0648\u063a\u0631\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0628\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0646\u062a\u0635\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0647\u064a \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629:<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0\u00a0Werner Munzinger, <em>Ostafrikanische Studien<\/em>, Schaffhausen: F. Hurter, 1864.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref22\">[22]<\/a> \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u064a\u0631\u0633\u0644\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0641\u0648\u062f \u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0633\u0631\u0629 \u0646\u0627\u0626\u0628. \u0648\u0622\u0644 \u0646\u0627\u0626\u0628 \u0647\u0645 \u0633\u0644\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629 \u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0638\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0627\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0646\u062c\u0627\u062d \u0644\u0644\u0627\u062d\u062a\u0641\u0627\u0638 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0648\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0646\u0627\u0641\u0633\u0629. \u0648\u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0633\u0637 \u0646\u0641\u0648\u0630\u0647\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u062a\u0634\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u0627\u062d\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627. \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u0631\u064a\u062c\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0631\u0643\u064a \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0627\u0634\u0631 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0627\u0634\u0631 \u0628\u064a\u0646 1850 \u06481860\u0645\u060c \u0623\u062f\u0649 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0646\u0647\u0627\u0621 \u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0626\u0644\u0629\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0646 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0644\u063a\u064a \u0633\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0646\u0647\u0627\u0626\u064a.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref23\">[23]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0Giuseppe Sapeto, <em>Viaggio e missione fra i Mensa i Bogos e gli Habab<\/em>, Rome: Propaganda Fide, 1857, p. 156 and p. 159; Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 159-169.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref24\">[24]<\/a> \u00a0\u0644\u0642\u062f \u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0635\u0648\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0646\u0633\u062e\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0646\u0633\u0628 \u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u062d\u0627\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0646\u0627\u0641\u0639\u0648\u062a\u0627\u064a \u0627\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0632\u064a\u0627\u0631\u062a\u064a \u0644\u0636\u0631\u064a\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u064a ( \u062a\u0648\u0641\u064a 1877\u0645) \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0645\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0645\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0627\u064a\u0648 \u0639\u0627\u0645 2000\u0645. \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0646\u0633\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u061b \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631 \u060c \u0623\u0631\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0648\u0634\u0639\u0628\u0627\u064b\u061b \u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u0648\u0643\u0630\u0644\u0643. 317\u00a0 Pollera, <em>Le popolazioni indigene<\/em>, p. 205. For the origins of the Ad Shaykh in the Eritrean region see also Maria H\u00f6fner, \u201c\u00dcberlieferungen bei Tigre-st\u00e4mmen (I) Ad Sek,\u201d <em>Annales d\u2019Ethiopie<\/em>, Tome IV, 1961, pp. 181-203.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref25\">[25]<\/a> \u00a0Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 239-240. Another point that requires further enquiry is whether the \u2018Ad Shaykh followed the Maliki legal rite.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref26\">[26]<\/a> Pollera, <em>Le popolazioni indigene dell\u2019Eritrea<\/em>, pp. 168-247; Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 114-117, 153-179, 244-5. See also Jonathan Miran, \u201c\u2018Ad Shaykh,\u201d<em> Encyclop\u00e6dia \u00c6thiopica<\/em>, edited by S. Uhlig, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2003, Vol. I,<em> <\/em>pp. 68-9<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref27\">[27]<\/a> \u0648\u0648\u0641\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0641\u0627\u0646\u0647 \u0648\u0644\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1808\u0645\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref28\">[28]<\/a> \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u061b \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0644\u0623\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639 \u060c \u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629 65. \u0639\u0627\u0634 \u0627\u062b\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0631\u0628\u064a\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\u064a\u062f\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0634\u0648\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0648\u0633\u0627\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0631. \u0648\u062a\u0648\u062c\u062f \u0643\u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u064a\u062a\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0645\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0645\u064a \u0648\u062d\u0631\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0648 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0628\u0636\u0639 \u0643\u064a\u0644\u0648\u0645\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u064a\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref29\">[29]<\/a> Guillaume Lejean, <em>Voyage aux Deux Nils<\/em>, Paris: Hachette, 1865, p. 142.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref30\">[30]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0639\u0646\u0647 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 R. S. O\u2019Fahey, <em>Arabic Literature of Africa, The Writings of Eastern Sudanic Africa to c.1900<\/em>, Volume I, Leiden: Brill, 1994, pp. 187-198, 208-9. \u0648\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 244-5. \u00a0\u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644\u00a0 \u0631\u062d\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631 Karrar, <em>The Sufi brotherhoods<\/em>, pp. 57-64;\u00a0\u00a0 \u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u00a0R. S. O\u2019Fahey, \u201c \u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 ( \u0648\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0627 ) \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a: a bibliographical note,\u201d <em>Sudanic Africa<\/em>, 12, 2001, pp. 135-7. See also Archivio Centrale dello Stato (henceforth ACS), Ministero dell\u2019Africa Italiana (henceforth MAI), Governo dell\u2019Eritrea, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 Cheren July 1928 by Amerio Liberati, pp. 69-70\u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0625\u062f\u0631\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u0646 \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0628\u0627\u0637\u0627\u0628\u064a\u060c ( \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0628\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0634\u0623\u0646 \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 ) \u2013 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0628\u0648 \u0633\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u060c \u0628\u064a\u0631\u0648\u062a \u060c \u062f\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0644\u064a\u0644\u060c 1991\u0645. \u0648\u064a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u062c\u0639\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0643\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629. \u0648\u062d\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639\u0629 Ercole Massara, \u201cIslamismo e confraternite in Eritrea. I Morgani,\u201d <em>L\u2019Illustrazione coloniale<\/em>, Anno III, No. 8, August 1921, pp. 306-7.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref31\">[31]<\/a> \u00a0John Obert Voll, \u2018A history of the Khatmiyyah tariqa in the Sudan,\u2019 Ph.D. Thesis, Harvard University 1969, pp. 178-181.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref32\">[32]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0R. S. O\u2019Fahey and Bernd Radtke, <em>Der Islam<\/em>, 70, 1993, \u201cNeo-Sufism Reconsidered,\u201d p. 79.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref33\">[33]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0Knut Vik\u00f8r, \u201cSufi Brotherhoods in Africa,\u201d in Levtzion and Pouwels, (eds.),<\/p>\n<p>The History of Islam in Africa, p. 463.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref34\">[34]<\/a> \u00a0\u0648\u0648\u0641\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0644\u00a0 Voll <em>baraka <\/em>was hereditary in the Mirghani family. Voll, \u201cA history of the Khatmiyyah tariqa,\u201d p. 158.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref35\">[35]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Ibid, pp. 189-190.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref36\">[36]<\/a> \u0627\u0646 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0643\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627\u064b\u061b \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0636\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0646 \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0643 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0636\u0649 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u2013 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0644\u062a \u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a \u064a\u062f \u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0639\u062f \u0634\u064a\u062e\u060c\u00a0 \u0628\u064a\u0646\u0645\u0627 \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0644\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0631\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0627\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u00a0\u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u062b\u0645 \u0644\u062d\u0642\u062a \u0628\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u064a\u062f \u0639\u062f \u0634\u064a\u062e \u0627\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b. \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631\u00a0 \u00a0Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, 167-8 and Gu\u00e9rinot, \u201cL\u2019islam et l\u2019Abyssinie,\u201d pp. 53-7 See also Rhodes House Library (Oxford, U.K.), <em>The Trevaskis Papers<\/em>, Box 1, File 2: \u2018The Tribes and Peoples of Northern Eritrea. A Survey of<em> <\/em>the Keren Division,\u2019 p. 19.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref37\">[37]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u2013 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0627\u0645\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631 O\u2019Fahey and Radtke, \u201cNeo-Sufism Reconsidered,\u201d pp. 82-3.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref38\">[38]<\/a> \u00a0\u0641\u064a \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1840\u0645 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u201d \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629\u201d \u0627\u0633\u0641\u0644 \u062c\u0628\u0644 \u0643\u0633\u0644\u0627\u060c \u062b\u0645 \u0627\u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 -. Karrar, <em>The Sufi brotherhoods<\/em>, p. 76.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref39\">[39]<\/a> Voll, \u201cA history of the Khatmiyyah tariqa,\u201d pp. 224-5<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref40\">[40]<\/a> \u00a0Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 245, 252. On Hashim al-Mirghani see <em>ALA, I<\/em>, pp. 208-9; Hofheinz, \u201cSons of a Hidden Imam: the Genealogy of the Mirghani Family,\u201d <em>Sudanic Africa<\/em>, 3, 1992, p. 25.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref41\">[41]<\/a> \u00a0The sources are: Archivio Storico Diplomatico Ministero degli Affari Esteri (henceforth ASDMAE), Archivio storico del Ministero dell\u2019Africa italiana, (henceforth <em>ASMAI<\/em>), Pos. 3 \/ 4, fasc. 23, \u2018Copia della lettera dello scek Saied Mohamed Hascem El Morgani a S. M. il Re d\u2019Italia, d\u2019Africa e dell\u2019Eritrea Vittorio Emanuele III,\u2019 Massaua, 7 Sha\u2018b\u00b8n 1318 \/ 29 November 1900; ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b.1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 Cheren July 1928 by Amerio Liberati, pp. 72-3. Also ASDMAE, <em>ASMAI <\/em>Pos. 3 \/ 4, fasc. 23, Gen\u00e8 to Minister of Foreign Affairs, 28 December 1886. On Muhammad \u2018Uthman Tajj al-Sir see <em>ALA<\/em>, I, p. 201.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref42\">[42]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u2013 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u0635\u0631\u00a0 \u2013 \u00a0, pp. 99-100; Pollera, <em>Le popolazioni indigene dell\u2019Eritrea<\/em>, p. 286.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref43\">[43]<\/a> \u00a0\u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631\u061b \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0644\u0627\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639\u060c \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0635\u0644 11\u060c (\u0648\u0639\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0646\u0647 \u201d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0636\u0627\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u201d \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0627\u062a 72- 99. \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639\u00a0 \u0627\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u062c\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062b\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0646 \u201d \u0633\u062c\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0639\u064a\u0629 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639: \u0645\u0635\u062f\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u062a\u0635\u0627\u062f\u064a \u2013 \u0648\u0647\u064a \u0648\u0631\u0642\u0629 \u0642\u062f\u0645\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u062a\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0644\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u060c \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629\u060c 22- 26 \u064a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0648 2001\u0645.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref44\">[44]<\/a> Dante Odorizzi, <em>Il<\/em><em> commissariato regionale di Massaua al 1\u00b0 gennaio 1910<\/em>, Asmara: Tip. Fioretti e Beltrami, 1911, pp.119-120, 160-1, 168-9. \u062a\u0631\u062a\u0628\u0637 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u062c\u062f \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0644\u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u062d\u062f \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u064a\u0648\u062c\u062f \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u060c \u0648\u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u0629 \u0645\u0633\u0627\u062c\u062f \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0631\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0648\u060c \u0648\u0627\u062b\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0645 \u0643\u0644\u0648 \u0648\u062d\u0637\u0645\u0644\u0648. \u0641\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0636\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0630\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637\u062a\u0647 \u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 1958 \u062e\u0645\u0633\u0629 \u0645\u0633\u0627\u062c\u062f \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u062a\u0627\u0628\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u062a\u0648\u0632\u0639 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0645\u0627\u062a\u0631\u064a \u0648\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0642\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u0631\u0627\u064a. \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u061b \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0644\u0623\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0627\u062a 59\u060c \u064861<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref45\">[45]<\/a> \u00a0\u0648\u0642\u062f \u0648\u0631\u062f \u0630\u0643\u0631 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0636\u0627\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u062f\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0633\u062c\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645\u064a 1870 \u0648 1880\u0645. \u0648\u062a\u0645\u0643\u0646\u062a \u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0623\u0643\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0646\u062a\u0633\u0627\u0628 \u0628\u0639\u0636\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0630\u0644\u064a\u0629. \u0648\u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0648\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a \u062a\u0645 \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0632\u0648\u0627\u064a\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0641\u0628\u0644 \u062c\u0639\u0641\u0631 \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u062a\u064a \u0627\u062b\u0631 \u0639\u062f\u0648\u062a\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c. \u0648\u0642\u062f \u0628\u0646\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0648\u0627\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0645\u0627\u062a\u0631\u064a \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u062d\u064a \u0645\u0627 \u0623\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u060c \u0648\u0623\u062e\u0630\u062a \u062a\u0646\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0632\u064a\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0633\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0625\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0630\u0643\u0631\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0628\u0646 \u0627\u062f\u0631\u064a\u0633 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0631\u062c\u0628 \u0643\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645. \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0623\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u062a\u064a\u061b \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 16 \u0645\u0627\u064a\u0648 2000\u0645.\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref46\">[46]<\/a> Alfred Le Chatelier, <em>Les confr\u00e9ries musulmanes du Hedjaz<\/em>, Paris: E. Leroux, 1887, pp. 126-128; Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, p. 236.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref47\"><\/a>\u0627\u0646\u0634\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u0627\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0634\u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u0627\u0633\u0645 \u0639\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u062f\u0631.. Trimingham, <em>Islam in Ethiopia<\/em>, pp. 155, 239, 241, 249 and interview with Muhammad Ahmad \u2018Abb\u00b8s\u00ba, Massawa 15 May 2000.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref48\">[48]<\/a> Odorizzi, <em>Il<\/em><em> commissariato regionale<\/em>, pp. 169-170; Dante Odorizzi, <em>Note storiche sulla religione mussulmana e sulle divisioni dell\u2019Islam con appunti speciali relativi all\u2019Islam in Eritrea<\/em>, Asmara: Tip. Coloniale M. Fioretti, 1916, pp. 35-36.<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref49\">[49]<\/a> \u00a0\u0648\u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0632\u064a\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u201d \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u060c \u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0646\u0648\u064a\u0629\u201d \u060c ( \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0633\u0645)\u060c \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0631\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0635\u0648\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u060c \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u062f 147\u060c 2 \u062f\u064a\u0633\u0645\u0628\u0631 1952\u0645\u061b \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0627\u062a 2\u060c 8 . ( \u0627\u0639\u062a\u0642\u062f \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u064a\u0646\u0634\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0631\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0635\u0648\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0647. \u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0632\u064a\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0635\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u062a\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0631\u0623\u0633 \u0645\u062f\u0631 \u0628\u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u060c \u0648\u0647\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0628\u0632\u064a\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0634\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0634\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0631\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645. .<em>\u00a0<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref50\">[50]<\/a> \u0648\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062f\u062e\u0644\u062a \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0633\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0627\u062c \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629. \u0641\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0647\u0634 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629\u00a0 \u00a0\u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0644\u062a \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0633\u0645\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0628\u064a\u062a \u0627\u0633\u0642\u062f\u064a.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref51\">[51]<\/a>\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a \u201d \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062e\u0635 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0638\u0631\u201d . \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0632\u0639\u064a\u0645 \u0645\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u064a\u0646\u0638\u0631 \u0638\u0647\u0648\u0631\u0647 \u064a\u0648\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0644\u0644\u0639\u0648\u062f\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u064a\u062d\u060c \u0648\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0636 \u0628\u0634\u0631\u0627\u0626\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0642. \u0648\u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628:<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0Peter M. Holt, <em>The Mahdist State in the Sudan 1881-1898<\/em>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970 [2nd ed.].<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref52\">[52]<\/a> \u00a0\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0647\u0645 \u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0628\u0634\u064a\u0629 ( \u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629) \u0641\u064a \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0642 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0623\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0646\u062c\u064a\u062f\u0627( 1847- 1897\u0645) \u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0642\u0627\u0626\u062f \u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u064a\u0648\u0647\u0646\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0639 ( 1872- 1889\u0645) \u0641\u064a \u0634\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0634\u0629 ( \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627). \u0648\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0633\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0631\u0623\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u062f\u062b\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0647\u0648 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639<\/p>\n<p>Haggai Erlich, <em>Ras Alula and the Scramble for Africa. A Political<\/em> <em>Biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea, 1875-1897<\/em>, Lawrenceville, NJ., 1996, pp. 35, 51-4, 58-64, 71-2, 85, 90-4, 100, 112 and more \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645 \u0623\u062d\u062a\u0641\u0638 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0645\u0648\u0642\u0641 \u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f \u0644\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u060c \u0641\u064a \u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0642\u0637\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0627\u0628 \u0648\u0639\u062f \u062a\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u062a\u062e\u0630\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0648\u0642\u0641\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0624\u064a\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0633\u0627\u0646\u062f\u0648\u0627 \u062d\u0645\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u062f\u0642\u0646\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref53\">[53]<\/a> Ibid. pp. 54-5.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref54\">[54]<\/a> \u00a0\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0643\u0648\u0641\u064a\u062a(\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627) \u0641\u064a 23 \u0645\u0646 \u0633\u0628\u062a\u0645\u0628\u0631 1885 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0623\u0633 \u0623\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0642\u0627\u0626\u062f \u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0645\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0631 \u064a\u0648\u0647\u0646\u0633 \u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u062f\u0642\u0646\u0629 \u0642\u0627\u0626\u062f \u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642. \u0648\u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 Haggai Erlich, <em>Ras Alula and the Scramble for Africa. A Political<\/em> <em>Biography: Ethiopia and \u00a0\u00a0(\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645)Eritrea, 1875-1897<\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref55\">[55]<\/a> \u00a0ASDMAE, Archivio Eritrea (henceforth AE), pacco 16, \u2018Proclama agli abitanti di Massaua,\u2019 by Rear Admiral Caimi, 5 February 1885.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref56\">[56]<\/a> \u00a0Cesare Marongiu Buonaiuti, <em>Politica e religioni nel colonialismo italiano (1882- 1941)<\/em>, Milano: Giuffr\u00e8, 1982, pp. 41-5, 103-7 \u0648\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u062d\u0633\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0633\u0627\u0644\u0645\u060c \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u060c 20 \u0645\u0627\u0631\u0633 2000\u0645. <em><\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref57\">[57]<\/a> \u00a0\u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627\u064b, Ilario Capomazza, Usanze islamiche hanafite di Massaua e dintorni, Macerata: Giorgetti, 1910, p. 9 and Tribunale Civile e Penale di Massaua. Relazione statistica de lavori compiuti nell\u2019anno 1892 dal Tribunale Civile e Penale di Massaua. (Dal Pres. Avv. Luigi Scotti), Massaua, 1893, p. 3.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref58\">[58]<\/a> \u00a0Marongiu Buonaiuti, <em>Politica e religioni<\/em>, pp. 104-105.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref59\">[59]<\/a> \u00a0Ibid. pp. 115-116.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref60\">[60]<\/a> \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0627\u0634\u0628\u0647 \u00a0\u0644\u0644\u062d\u0636\u0627\u0631\u0645\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a \u064a\u0633\u062a\u062d\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0633\u0629. \u0641\u0645\u0646\u0630 \u0623\u0648\u0627\u062e\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639\u00a0 \u00a0\u0639\u0634\u0631\u060c \u0641\u0627\u0646 \u0631\u062c\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u063a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u060c \u0648\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0648\u0646\u0634\u0637\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0648\u062c\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0642\u062f \u0628\u062f\u0623\u0648\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0645\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u062c\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u0627\u0631\u0633 \u0648\u064a\u062d\u0631\u0631\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u064a\u0633\u062a\u062c\u0644\u0628\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u064a\u062a\u0631\u0623\u0633\u0648\u0646 \u0644\u062c\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0642\u0627\u0641\u060c \u0648\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646\u0634\u0637\u0629 \u0648\u062d\u062a\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a. \u0648\u0646\u0630\u0643\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0634\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0626\u0644 \u061b \u0628\u0627\u062d\u0628\u064a\u0634\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0637\u0648\u0642\u060c \u0648\u062d\u064a\u0648\u062a\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0635\u0627\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u063a\u0648\u0644\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0644\u0627\u0644.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref61\">[61]<\/a> \u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0641\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0634\u062f\u064a\u0646\u060c \u0647\u0648 \u0623\u0643\u0628\u0631 \u0645\u0633\u0627\u062c\u062f \u0623\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0628\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1900\u060c \u0628\u062f\u0639\u0645 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0623\u0641\u0646\u062f\u064a \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0648\u0644\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0645\u0646 \u0623\u0635\u0644 \u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0623\u0646\u0630\u0627\u0643. . Gori, \u201cSoggiorno di studi,\u201d p. 83, Giuseppe Puglisi, <em>Chi \u00e8? dell\u2019Eritrea. Dizionario biografico<\/em>, Asmara: Agenzia Regina, 1952, p. 7, \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u064a \u064a\u0648\u0633\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u063a\u0648\u0644\u060c \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639\u060c \u0641\u064a 26 \u0641\u0628\u0631\u0627\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0627\u0645 2000\u0645. \u0645\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0631 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u062a\u062d\u062f\u062f \u0639\u0627\u0645 1906\u0645 \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0644\u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062c\u062f.. Edward Denison, Guang Yu Ren, Naigzy Gebremedhin, <em>Asmara: Africa\u2019s \u00a0Modernist City<\/em>, London and New York: Merrell, 2003, p. 130.<em><\/em><\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref62\">[62]<\/a> Ghada HashemTalhami, <em>Suakin and Massawa under Egyptian Rule, 1865-1885<\/em>,<\/p>\n<p>Washington D.C.: University Press of America, 1979, pp. 234-5.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref63\">[63]<\/a> \u00a0\u062a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u062d\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0623\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u062e \u0639\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f\u060c \u0627\u062d\u062f \u0632\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0628\u0627\u0628\u060c\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0642 \u0628\u0635\u0641\u0648\u0641 \u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u062f\u0633\u0629. Ibid, 187-8. \u0648\u0639\u0644\u0642\u062a \u0627\u062d\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 1920\u0645\u060c \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0643\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u0627\u0644\u0641 \u0639\u062f \u0634\u064a\u062e \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0647\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0645\u062d\u0627\u0631\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0628\u0642\u064a\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0623\u062d\u062f\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u0648\u062e \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u062c \u064a\u0639\u0642\u0648\u0628 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u0644\u064a\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u062a\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0648\u0642\u0639\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0631\u0645\u0648\u0642\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0642\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u062f\u0642\u0646\u0629\u060c \u0623\u0645\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0647\u062f\u0646\u062f\u0648\u0629. \u00a0ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 by Amerio Liberati, (Cheren, July 1928), p. 55.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref64\">[64]<\/a> \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0632\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0637\u0645\u0644\u0648 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0628\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u062e\u0627\u0635 ASDMAE, <em>ASMAI<\/em>, pos. 3 \/ 4, fasc. 23, \u2018Famiglia Morgani,\u2019 Gen\u00e9 to Ministro Aff. Esteri, (Massaua, 21 January 1886 and 28 December 1886) and Baldissera to Ministro della Guerra (Massaua, 13 June 1889); ASDMAE, <em>AE<\/em>, pacco 43, Ministro Aff. Esteri, Robilant to Gen\u00e9 (Rome, 6 December 1886).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref65\">[65]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1898\u0645 ACS, <em>Carte F. Martini<\/em>, s. 16, fasc. 54-55 and ASDMAE, <em>ASMAI <\/em>Pos 3 \/ 4, fasc 23, Martini to Ministro Affari Esteri, Asmara, 3 May 1901. \u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b Ferdinando Martini, <em>Il diario eritreo<\/em>, Firenze: Vallecchi, 1947, I, pp. 43-5 (Massaua, 2-3 February 1898) and p. 52 (7 February 1898).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref66\">[66]<\/a> \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u062a \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0648\u0627\u0645 1902- 1903\u0645 in ACS, <em>Carte F. Martini<\/em>, b. 16, fasc, 54-55, \u2018Morgani.\u2019 See also Martini, <em>Il diario eritreo<\/em>, II, p. 15 (4 June 1902).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref67\">[67]<\/a> \u00a0See correspondence from 1902-3 in ACS, <em>Carte F. Martini<\/em>, b. 16, fasc, 54-55, \u2018Morgani.\u2019 See also Martini, <em>Il diario eritreo<\/em>, II, p. 15 (4 June 1902).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref68\">[68]<\/a> \u00a0\u062a\u0639\u062a\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0639\u0644\u0649 Puglisi, <em>Chi \u00e8 dell Eritrea, <\/em>p. 213<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref69\">[69]<\/a> \u00a0\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u0628\u0639\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644 \u062e\u0645\u0633 \u0643\u064a\u0644\u0648\u0645\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0648\u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0634\u0643\u0644 \u0625\u0645\u062a\u062f\u0627\u062f\u0627\u064b \u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0646 \u0625\u0645\u062a\u062f\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062f\u064a\u0646\u0629 \u0646\u062d\u0648\u0647\u0627. ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645)<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref70\">[70]<\/a> ASDMAE, <em>AE<\/em>, 43, (Il direttore ?) to the Commissario regionale di Massaua, Asmara, 28 December 1902 (\u2018Oggetto: Sidi Giafer el Morgani\u2019). For <em>sayyid <\/em>Ja\u2018far\u2019s agreement to transfer to Keren see ASDMAE, <em>AE<\/em>, 43, Salvadei to Governor in Asmara (Massaua, 8 January 1903).<\/p>\n<p>Massimo Romandini, \u201cPolitica musulmana in Eritrea durante il governorato Martini,\u201d <em>Islam, storia e civilta<\/em>, anno III, n.2, aprile-giugno 1984, 127-131 and Atti Parlamentari, Legislazione XXIII-sessione 1909-13, Camera dei Deputati, <em>Allegati<\/em> <em>alla Relazione sulla Colonia Eritrea<\/em>, 32-3. \u00a0\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0633\u062c\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u062c\u0639\u0641\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0642 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a ( 1822\/1823 \u2013 1860\/1861\u0645) \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0645\u0643\u0644\u0648 \u0627\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0647\u0627\u0634\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0645\u0646 \u062c\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0627\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u062a\u062c\u062a\u0630\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0639 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0637\u0642. \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u064a \u0645\u0646\u0627\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u064a\u0632\u0627\u0631 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u064a\u062d\u060c \u0648\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0636\u0627\u0626\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0628\u0648\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0630\u0643\u0627\u0631. \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u062c\u0639\u0641\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0642 \u0628\u0646 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a ( 1822\/1823 \u2013 1860\u06451861\u0645) \u0627\u0646\u0638\u0631: <em>ALA<\/em>, I, p. 207. ASDMAE, <em>AE<\/em>, 43, Dante Odorizzi (Massaua) a Regente del Governo (Asmara), 3 November 1910 (\u2018circa la festa del Holl di Morghani\u2019\u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631 \u061b \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0644\u0627\u062e\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u062c\u0632\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0636\u0639\u060c \u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629 65<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref71\">[71]<\/a> Atti Parlamentari, Legislazione XXIII-sessione 1909-13, Camera dei Deputati, <em>Allegati alla Relazione sulla Colonia Eritrea<\/em>, p. 33. See also ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 by Amerio Liberati (Cheren, July 1928), pp. 75-77.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref72\">[72]<\/a> \u00a0ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 by Amerio Liberati (Cheren, July 1928), pp. 54, 75-77. <em>Atti parlamentari<\/em>, pp. 33-4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref73\">[73]<\/a> \u00a0\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0644\u0639\u062f \u0634\u064a\u062e \u0645\u0646\u062a\u0634\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627. \u0648\u064a\u0643\u0631\u0631 \u0628\u0648\u0644\u064a\u0631\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0646\u0641\u0633 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c\u062c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u062b\u0627\u0631 \u0641\u064a \u0628\u062f\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646. . Pollera, <em>Le popolazioni indigene<\/em>, pp. 204ff and 286-7.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref74\">[74]<\/a> \u00a0ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 by Amerio Liberati (Cheren, July 1928), p. 55. 68 Ibid., pp. 26-7, 48.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref75\">[75]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Ibid., pp. 26-7, 48.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref76\">[76]<\/a> \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 Giuseppe Caniglia, <em>La Sceriffa di Massaua (La Tarica Katmia<\/em>), Roma: Cremonese Libraio Editore, 1940. \u0641\u0642\u062f \u0628\u0644\u063a\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0641\u0627\u062a \u0630\u0631\u0648\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0646\u062f\u0645\u0627 \u063a\u0627\u062f\u0631\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0648\u064a\u0629 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627 1919\u0645 \u0645\u062a\u062c\u0647\u0629 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0633\u0648\u0627\u0643\u0646 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u062a\u0642\u064a\u064a\u0645 \u0634\u0642\u064a\u0642\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0631\u064a\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0639\u0648\u062f\u062a\u0647\u0627 \u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1923 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u062a \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0637\u0645\u0644\u0648\u060c \u0645\u062a\u0639\u0647\u062f\u0629 \u0628\u0639\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062f\u062e\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629.\u00a0 . ACS, <em>MAI<\/em>, b. 1066, Allegato no. 9, \u2018Note sul commissariato regionale di Cheren,\u2019 by Amerio Liberati, (Cheren, July 1928), p. 78-9. A \u0648\u062a\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0631 \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u00a0Silvia Bruzzi, \u2018Colonialismo italiano e Islam in Eritrea (1890-1941),\u2019 Tesi di Laurea in Storia dei Paesi Africani nel Secolo XX, Alma Mater Studiorum, Universit\u00e0 di Bologna, AA. 2003\/2004. \u0623\u062e\u0631 \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u062a\u0644\u0642\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0648\u0621 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u0634\u0631\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0648\u0645\u0648\u0627\u0642\u0641\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062b\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062c\u062f\u0644 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\u0634\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref77\">[77]<\/a> Anna Baldinetti, <em>Orientalismo e colonialismo. La ricerca di consenso in Egitto per l\u2019impresa di Libia<\/em>, Roma, Istituto per l\u2019Oriente \u201cC .A . Nallino,\u201d 1997, \u062e\u0627\u0635\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0627\u0646\u064a. \u0648\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062b\u064a\u0631 \u0644\u0644\u062f\u0647\u0634\u0629 \u0641\u0627\u0646, Enrico Insabato<em> <\/em>\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0635\u0631 \u0639\u0646 \u0643\u062b\u0628 \u062a\u062d\u062a Giuseppe Salvago Raggi \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627 \u0644\u0627\u064a\u0637\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0647\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u062d\u0627\u0643\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 ( 1907- 1915\u0645) \u00a0Carlo Gotti Porcinari, <em>Rapporti Italo-Arabi (1902-1930) dai documenti di Enrico Insabato<\/em>, Roma: E.S.P., 1965, pp. 9.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref78\">[78]<\/a> \u00a0Salvatore Bono, \u201cIslam et politique coloniale en Libye,\u201d <em>The Maghreb Review<\/em>,<\/p>\n<p>13 (1-2) 1988, pp. 70-76.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref79\">[79]<\/a> \u00a0Baldinetti, <em>Orientalismo e colonialismo<\/em>, p. 50. \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0627\u0642 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0643\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639\u064a \u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0628 \u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0631\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0641. They are divided according to provinces and nationalities. Enrico Insabato was behind this intitiative.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref80\">[80]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0During these years two colonial officials stand out as \u201cspecialists\u201d of Islam and Eritrea\u2019s Muslim societies: Dante Odorizzi (Mantova 1867- Mersa F\u00b8\u00abma Heri [Eri.] 1917) and Ilario Capomazza (Pozzuoli 1875-Merca [Som.] 1932). Odorizzi, the higher ranking of the two, served as <em>commissario regionale <\/em>of Massawa from 1908 to 1915. Both published valuable monographs and dictionaries related to Islam, customary law, and the Tigre, \u2018Afar, and Saho-speaking peoples of the colony. Puglisi, <em>Chi \u00e8? dell\u2019Eritrea<\/em>, pp. 67, 222.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref81\">[81]<\/a> Odorizzi, <em>Note storiche sulla religione mussulmana<\/em>, and Yassin M. Aberra, \u201cMuslim Institutions in Ethiopia: the Asmara Awqaf,\u201d <em>Journal of the Institute of Muslim Minority<\/em> <em>Affairs<\/em>, 5, 1983, p. 206.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref82\">[82]<\/a> Gaspare Colosimo, <em>Relazione al parlamento sulla situazione politica economica edamministrativa delle colonie italiane<\/em>, Roma, 1918, pp. 467-481. (\u201cAcquisti di immobili a Mecca, Medina e Gedda per i pellegrini mussulmani poveri o indigenti delle colonie italiane\u201d).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref83\">[83]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0645\u062b\u0644\u0627\u064b John Wright, \u201cMussolini, Libya and the \u2018Sword of Islam,\u2019\u201d <em>The Maghreb Review<\/em>, 12 (1-2) 1987, pp. 29-33. \u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u0646\u0639\u0629 \u0644\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639. \u00a0Roberto Cantalupo\u2019s suggestive book title <em>L\u2019Italia Musulmana<\/em>, Rome 1928. See also Enrico Galoppini, <em>Il<\/em><em> fascismo e l\u2019islam<\/em>, Parma: Edizioni all\u2019insegna del Veltro, 2001.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref84\">[84]<\/a> \u00a0Alberto Sbacchi, <em>Ethiopia<\/em><em> Under Mussolini: Fascism and the Colonial Experience<\/em>, London: Zed, 1985, pp. 161-165. See also Haggai Erlich, <em>Ethiopia and the Middle<\/em> <em>East, <\/em>chapters 8 and 9. See also Nicla Buonasorte, \u201cLa politica religiosa italiana in Africa Orientale dopo la conquista (1936-1941),\u201d <em>Studi Piacentini<\/em>, 17, 1995, pp. 53-114.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref85\">[85]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0<em>Guida dell\u2019Africa Orientale Italiana<\/em>, Milano: Consociazione Turistica Italiana, 1938, p. 203.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref86\">[86]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0636\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0634\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0631 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0634\u0647\u0631\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u062a\u0628\u0637\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0627\u0639\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639\u0629\u00a0 Puglisi\u2019s biographical dictionary <em>Chi \u00e8? dell\u2019Eritrea<\/em>. See for example \u2018Ahmed Effendi al-Gul\u2019 (p. 7), \u2018Idris Hussen Suleiman\u2019 (p. 169), \u2018Mahmud Nur Hussein Berhanu\u2019 (p. 189), \u2018Omar Obed Bahobesci\u2019 (p. 223), \u2018Saleh Ahmed Checchia Pasha\u2019 (p. 262) and many others. [I have left the names in Puglisi\u2019s Italianized transliteration].<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref87\">[87]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Marongiu Buonaiuti, <em>Politica e religioni<\/em>, pp. 290-291.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref88\">[88]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0639\u0645\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u00a0Jonathan Miran, \u201cGrand Mufti, erudite et nationaliste \u00e9rythr\u00e9en: note sur la vie et l\u2019oeuvre de cheikh Ibr\u00e2h\u00eem al-Mukht\u00e2r (1909-1969),\u201d <em>Chroniques y\u00e9m\u00e9nites <\/em>(Centre Fran\u00e7ais d\u2019Arch\u00e9ologie et de Sciences Sociales de Sanaa), 10, 2002, pp. 35-47. [Full text accessible on-line at <a href=\"http:\/\/cy\/\">http:\/\/cy<\/a> revues.org \/document126.html].<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref89\">[89]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Tom Killion, <em>Historical Dictionary of Eritrea<\/em>, Lanham, MD, &amp; London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1998, p. 266.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref90\">[90]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 Lloyd Ellingson, \u201cThe emergence of political parties in Eritrea, 1941-1950,\u201d <em>Journal of African History<\/em>, 18, 2, (1977), pp. 270-2 and Redie Bereketeab, <em>Eritrea<\/em><em>: The Making of a Nation, 1890-1991<\/em>, Uppsala: Uppsala University, 2000, pp. 157-160. \u0627\u062e\u062a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0631\u063a\u0646\u064a\u060c \u062e\u0644\u064a\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0643\u0631\u0646 \u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u0627\u064b \u0634\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u0631\u0627\u0628\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref91\">[91]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Bereketeab, <em>Eritrea<\/em><em>: The Making of a Nation<\/em>, p. 270.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref92\">[92]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0635\u0627\u0639\u062f \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641 \u0627\u0634\u0643\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0631 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062b\u0644\u0627\u062b\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref93\">[93]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0626\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0645\u0644\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0627\u062a\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u00a0Miran and O\u2019Fahey, \u201cThe Islamic and Related Writings of Eritrea.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref94\">[94]<\/a> \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0645\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0638\u0627\u062a \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0646\u0627\u0648\u062f\u061b \u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u060c \u062c\u062f\u0629 (\u062f.\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e) \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0627\u062a: 81- 82\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref95\">[95]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Aberra, \u201cMuslim Institutions in Ethiopia,\u201d p. 207.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref96\">[96]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Giuseppe Puglisi, \u201cLa scuola in Eritrea ieri e oggi,\u201d <em>Affrica<\/em>, VIII (5) 1953, p. 146.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref97\">[97]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u062f\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0641 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0627 \u062e\u0644\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 A. Chanfi Ahmed, \u201cIslamic Mission in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Perspectives of some \u2018Ulam\u00b8\u2019 associated with the al-Azhar University (1960-1970),\u201d <em>WI<\/em>, 41 (3) 2001, pp. 348-378 and (id.), \u201cAl-Azhar et l\u2019Afrique au sud du Sahara d\u2019apr\u00e8s la revue <em>Madjallat al-Azhar <\/em>dans les ann\u00e9es 1960 et 1970,\u201d <em>Islam et Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s au Sud du Sahara<\/em>, 14 (2000), pp. 57-80.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref98\">[98]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Jordan Gebre-Medhin, <em>Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea: A Critique of Ethiopian Studies<\/em>, Trenton, NJ.: Red Sea Press, 1989, pp. 144-149.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref99\">[99]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u062a\u0627\u0631: \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0648\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0645\u062f\u0646 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u062d\u0629 45<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref100\">[100]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0John Markakis, <em>National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa<\/em>, London: Zed, 1990 (1st ed,. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 74. \u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0628\u062d\u062b\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0627 \u0628\u0646\u0638\u0631\u0629 \u0646\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u062a\u062d\u0644\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u064a \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u00a0Enrico Cerulli, \u201cL\u2019Islam en Ethiopie: sa signification historique et ses m\u00e9thodes,\u201d <em>Correspondence d\u2019Orient<\/em>, 5, 1961, pp. 317-329. \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u062f\u064a\u0633 \u0623\u0628\u0627\u0628\u0627\u060c \u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u062c\u0627\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0638\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 , Jon Abbink, \u201cAn historical-anthropological approach to Islam in Ethiopia: issues of identity and politics,\u201d <em>Journal of African Cultural Studies<\/em>, 11 (2) December 1998, pp. 109-124.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref101\">[101]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649 \u0645\u0646 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0648\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639Tekeste Negash, <em>Eritrea and Ethiopia: The Federal Experience<\/em>, New Brunswick, NJ.,: Transaction Publishers, 1997,<em> <\/em>pp. 94-6, 100.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref102\">[102]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Ruth Iyob, <em>The Eritrean Struggle for Independence<\/em>: <em>Domination, resistance, nationalism 1941-1993<\/em>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 89.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref103\">[103]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Yaqob Beyene, \u201cLa lotta per l\u2019indipendenza dell\u2019Eritrea ed i Paesi Arabi\u201d, <em>Studi arabo-islamici in onore di Roberto Rubinacci nel suo settantesimo compleanno<\/em>, edited by Clelia Sarnelli Cerqua, Naples : Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1985, vol. I., pp. 71-72. See also John Markakis, <em>Ethiopia: Anatomy of a Traditional Polity<\/em>, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974, p. 366.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref104\">[104]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Miran, \u201cGrand Mufti,\u201d p. 41. \u0648\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u062e\u0631 \u0645\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0644\u0628\u0639\u062b\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0632\u0647\u0631 \u0642\u062f \u0637\u0631\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0641\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645 1966\u0645<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref105\">[105]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Killion, <em>Historical Dictionary of Eritrea<\/em>, pp. 186, 195. See also Lloyd Ellingson, \u201cThe Origins and Development of the Eritrean Liberation Movement.\u201d In Robert L. Hess, ed., <em>Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies<\/em>, Chicago, 1978, Session B., pp. 613-628.\u0627\u0646 \u0623\u0647\u0645 \u0634\u062e\u0635\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u0633\u062a \u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0647\u0648 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0633\u0639\u064a\u062f \u0646\u0627\u0648\u062f\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u062a\u0623\u062b\u0631\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0623\u0641\u0643\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0632\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u064a\u0648\u0639\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0648\u062f\u0627\u0646\u064a. \u0648\u062a\u0628\u0646\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u062c\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u0633\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a. \u0648\u062a\u0645 \u062a\u0623\u0633\u064a\u0633 \u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u062f\u0631\u064a\u0633 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0623\u062f\u0645 \u0648\u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0637\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0648\u0637\u0646\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0632\u0645\u0648\u0627 \u0628\u0628\u062f\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0641\u0627\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u062d \u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627. \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0623\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0626\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u0639\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u0648\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u064a \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0631. \u0648\u0644\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u00a0Markakis, <em>National and Class Conflict in the Horn of Africa<\/em>, pp. 104-131.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref106\">[106]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u0645\u0639 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0647\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0634\u0627\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0646 \u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0642\u062f \u0636\u0645\u062a \u0639\u0646\u0627\u0635\u0631 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0648\u0644\u062f\u0623\u0628 \u0648\u0644\u062f\u064a \u0645\u0627\u0631\u064a\u0627\u0645\u060c \u0648\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref107\">[107]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0648\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0641\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0632\u064a\u062f \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0633\u0628\u064a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0627\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0644 \u0634\u0647\u0631\u0629 \u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u064a\u0632 \u0628\u0634\u062f\u0629 \u0648\u0644\u0643\u0646\u0647 \u0645\u0648\u062b\u0642 \u062c\u064a\u062f\u060c \u0648\u0631\u0641\u064a\u0642 \u062f\u0631\u0628\u0647 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0636\u0627\u0644\u060c \u0648\u0647\u0648 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0628\u0648\u0628\u0643\u0631\u060c \u0641\u064a \u0643\u062a\u0627\u0628\u0647 \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0635\u0627\u0644\u062d \u0633\u0628\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062b\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629\u061b \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0647\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0643\u062a\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0635\u0631\u064a \u0644\u062a\u0648\u0632\u064a\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0628\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u060c 1998\u0645.\u00a0<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref108\"><\/a>\u00a0\u0648\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u062c\u0647\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u0642 \u0623\u0648\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0628\u0639\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0644\u0648\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0635\u0644\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u00a0Erlich, <em>Ethiopia and<\/em> <em>the Middle East<\/em>, chapters 10 and 12 and Haggai Erlich, <em>The Struggle over Eritrea,<\/em> <em>1962-1978: War and Revolution in the Horn of Africa<\/em>, Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1983.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref109\"><\/a>\u0648\u0641\u064a \u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a\u0627( \u062f\u0648\u0646 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627) \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u062a\u0648\u062c\u0647 \u0647\u064a\u0644\u064a \u0633\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0633\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0635\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0629 . \u0641\u0628\u0627\u0633\u062a\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u062f\u064a\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0639\u0627\u0645 1955\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u0623\u0645\u0646\u062a \u0644\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u062d\u0642\u0648\u0642 \u0645\u062a\u0633\u0627\u0648\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0627 \u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0642\u062f \u062a\u0645 \u062a\u062c\u0627\u0647\u0644\u0647\u0645 \u060c \u0648\u062a\u0647\u0645\u064a\u0634\u0647\u0645\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u0639\u062f\u0648\u0627 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0637\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0631\u0643\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u0629. . Markakis, <em>National and Class Conflict<\/em>, pp. 73-4; Hussein Ahmed, \u201cIslam and Islamic Discourse in Ethiopia (1973-1993),\u201d <em>New<\/em> <em>Trends in Ethiopian Studies<\/em>, <em>Proceedings of the 12th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies (East Lansing, Michigan)<\/em>, edited by Harold Marcus, Lawrenceville, NJ.: Red Sea Press, 1994, pp. 776-778.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref110\">[110]<\/a> \u00a0Erlich, The Struggle Over Eritrea, p. 58<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref111\">[111]<\/a> \u00a0For the status of Muslim courts in Ethiopia see Hussein Ahmed, \u201cIslam and Islamic Discourse,\u201d p. 777.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref112\">[112]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0631\u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u0627 \u0627\u0646\u0639\u0643\u0633 \u0633\u0644\u0628\u0627\u064b \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0639\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0628\u064a \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0644\u0643 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629\u00a0 \u0648\u062a\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u062f\u0648\u0631\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0645\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0648\u0644\u064a \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0637 \u0628\u0647\u0645\u060c \u0641\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627 \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0631\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0637\u00a0 \u0644\u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0630\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u0644\u0645 \u064a\u0648\u0645\u0627\u064b \u0642\u0636\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0647\u0627 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062b\u064a\u0648\u0628\u064a \u0644\u0644\u0627\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u064a\u0639\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0633\u0627\u0633\u0627\u064b \u0625\u0644\u064a \u0639\u0647\u062f \u064a\u0648\u0647\u0646\u0633 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 19\u060c \u0628\u0644 \u0648\u0631\u0628\u0645\u0627 \u0642\u0628\u0644\u0647 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u0628\u062f\u0627 \u0623\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0643\u0631\u062f \u0641\u0639\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062c\u0647\u0627\u062f \u0623\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u0647\u064a\u0645 \u0642\u0631\u0627\u0646\u062c \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 15 \u062b\u0645\u00a0 \u062a\u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0644\u064a\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0627\u0636\u0637\u0647\u0627\u062f\u0627 \u0633\u064a\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0627 ( \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645).<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref113\">[113]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u062a\u0636\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u062b\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0633\u0648\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0627\u0642 \u060c \u0648\u0645\u0646\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0644\u0633\u0637\u064a\u0646\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0646\u0648\u0628\u064a \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0627.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref114\">[114]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u062a\u0636\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0643\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u064a\u062d\u064a\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u060c \u0648\u0627\u0628\u062a\u0639\u062f\u062a \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0648\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0635\u0627\u0644\u062d\u00a0 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0643\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0631\u0643\u0633\u064a \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0646\u0641\u0635\u0627\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0627\u0626\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0627\u0628\u0642\u0629. \u0648\u0631\u0643\u0632\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u062a\u0646\u0648\u0639 \u0648\u062a\u0639\u062f\u062f \u0627\u0639\u0631\u0627\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062c\u062a\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a. . On the EPLF see David Pool, <em>From Guerrillas to Government:<\/em> <em>The Eritrean People\u2019s Liberation Front<\/em>, Oxford and Athens, OH.: James Currey and Ohio University Press, 2001.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref115\">[115]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Killion, <em>Historical Dictionary<\/em>, p. 314.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref116\">[116]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Tesfatsion Medhanie, <em>Eritrea<\/em><em> and Neighbours in the \u2018New World\u2019 Order: Geopolitics, Democracy and \u201cIslamic Fundamentalism,\u201d <\/em>Bremer Afrika-Studien, b. 15, M\u00fcnster\/<em> <\/em>Hamburg: Lit Verlag, 1994 (1994) pp. 78-92.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref117\">[117]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u201cEIRM\u2019s Military Communiqu\u00e9 and our Commentary, \u0648\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u062f \u062e\u0644\u064a\u0644 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u0627\u0645\u0631 \/ \u062c\u0628\u0647\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0635 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u060c \u0646\u0634\u0631\u062a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0648\u0642\u0639 \u00a0\u201d [<em>http:\/\/www.awate. com\/artman \/publish\/article_2025.shtml<\/em>] \u060c \u0646\u0634\u0631\u062a \u0628\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e 18, 2003 [http:\/\/www.<em> <\/em>awate.com\/artman\/publish\/article_2918.shtml] on January 11, 2004.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref118\">[118]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u0644\u0644\u0627\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0639 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0644\u0627\u062d\u0638\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0641\u064a\u062f\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0624\u0633\u0633\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062d\u064a\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0631\u062d\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0627 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0631\u064a\u0631\u060c \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629 \u060c \u0643\u0631\u0646 \u0645\u0635\u0648\u0639 \u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 Gori, \u201cSoggiorno di studi,\u201d pp. 83-89.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref119\">[119]<\/a> \u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062d\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u062a\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u060c \u0645\u0639 \u0645\u0646\u0627\u062a\u0642\u0634\u0629 \u0644\u062f\u0648\u0631 \u0648\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u062a\u0627\u0621 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u061b \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629- \u0627\u0633\u0645\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062f\u062f. 104, 26 \u0623\u063a\u0633\u0637 1992, p 4.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref120\">[120]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0Louis Werner, \u201cForging Plowshares in Eritrea,\u201d <em>Aramco World<\/em>, Vol. 47 (6) November\/December 1996, p. 19.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref121\">[121]<\/a> Killion, <em>Historical Dictionary<\/em>, p. 267.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref122\">[122]<\/a> \u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u00a0Gori, \u201cSoggiorno di studi\u201d and idem. \u201cArabic in Eritrea,\u201d <em>Encyclop\u00e6dia \u00c6thiopica<\/em>, Vol. 1, pp. 304-305.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref123\">[123]<\/a> \u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0641\u0624\u0627\u062f \u0645\u0643\u064a, \u201cNationalism, State Formation and the Public Sphere: Eritrea 1991-96,\u201d <em>Review of African Political Economy <\/em>(70) 1996, pp. 483-484.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/arabic.awate.com\/wp-admin\/post-new.php#_ftnref124\">[124]<\/a> \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u0631\u0627\u062c\u0639 \u0623\u064a\u0636\u0627\u064b \u062a\u0639\u0644\u064a\u0642\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0645\u0627\u062b\u0644\u0629 \u060c \u0633\u064a\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u062d\u0645\u062f \u062d\u0633\u064a\u0646 \u0641\u064a , \u201cThe conflict in Eritrea reconsidered,\u201d <em>Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs<\/em>, 18 (1) 1998, pp. 159-168.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0628\u0642\u0644\u0645:\u062c\u0648\u0646\u0627\u062b\u0627\u0646 \u0645\u064a\u0631\u0627\u0646 (\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0641\u0631\u064a\u0642\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u064a \u0641\u064a \u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639\u0629 \u0648\u064a\u0633\u062a\u0631\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0634\u0646\u0637\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0648\u0644\u0627\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629) Jonathan.Miran@wwu.edu \u062a\u0631\u062c\u0645\u0629:\u00a0 \u0645\u062d\u0645\u062f \u0639\u062b\u0645\u0627\u0646 \u0639\u0644\u064a \u062f\u0627\u064a\u0646\u0627 \u00a0\u0625\u0646 \u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 \u2013 \u0628\u0625\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0631\u0647\u00a0 \u062f\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u0646\u0635\u0641 \u0633\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0644\u0627\u062f \u062a\u0642\u0631\u064a\u0628\u0627\u064b- \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0632\u0627\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0644\u0647\u0627 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0644\u0649. \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0625\u062c\u0631\u0627\u0621 \u0628\u062d\u062b \u0641\u064a \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u00a0 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u0637\u0642\u0629\u00a0 \u0648\u0643\u063a\u064a\u0631\u0647\u00a0 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u062c\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062d\u0648\u062b \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0639\u0644\u0642\u0629 \u0628\u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627\u060c \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d \u0645\u0645\u0643\u0646\u0627\u064b \u0628\u0638\u0647\u0648\u0631 \u0625\u0631\u062a\u0631\u064a\u0627 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"advanced_seo_description":"","jetpack_seo_html_title":"","jetpack_seo_noindex":false,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[60],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-13558","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-60"],"jetpack_featured_media_url":"","jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_likes_enabled":true,"jetpack-related-posts":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13558","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=13558"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13558\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":13560,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/13558\/revisions\/13560"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=13558"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=13558"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/www.farajat.net\/ar\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=13558"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}